S.T COLERIDGE: BIOGRAPHIA LITERARIA
Biographia Literaria, or Biographical Sketches of My Literary Life and Opinions, is an
autobiography in discourse by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, which he published in 1817, in two
volumes of twenty-three chapters.
Biographia Literaria includes some of the most important English writing on poetic theory. Some
of it is a response to ideas of poetry advanced by his close friend and collaborator William
Wordsworth, first in the 1800 preface to their joint publication Lyrical Ballads and then in the
preface to Wordsworth’s Collected Poems (1815). Referring to the latter, Coleridge says he
wants in Biographia Literaria to make clear ‘on what points I coincide with the opinions in that
preface, and in what points I altogether differ’.
In one of the most famous passages in Biographia Literaria, Coleridge offers a theory of
creativity (pp. 95-96). He divides imagination into primary and secondary.
Primary imagination is common to all humans: it enables us to perceive and make sense
of the world. It is a creative function and thereby repeats the divine act of creation.
The secondary imagination enables individuals to transcend the primary imagination –
not merely to perceive connections but to make them. It is the creative impulse that
enables poetry and other art.
Biographia Literaria contains the first instance of the phrase ‘suspension of disbelief’. Writing
about his contributions to the Lyrical Ballads, which includes The Rime of the Ancient Mariner,
Coleridge says that although his characters were ‘supernatural, or at least romantic’, he tried to
give them a ‘human interest and a semblance of disbelief’ that would prompt readers to the
‘willing suspension of disbelief … which constitutes poetic faith’.
The book addresses thematic elements of poetry such as suspense, as well as elements of the poet
himself, including a decomposition of the meaning of creativity informed by his knowledge
about both past and early 19th-century philosophical thought. Because of the insight it provides
into the mind of a great poet in the early years of what scholars define as the modern literary
era, Biographica Literaria is now a seminal work in critical theory.
Coleridge begins the work with a meditation on his formative years of schooling, particularly his
secondary schooling under James Boyer at a grammar school called Christ’s Hospital. This time
formed the basis for his poem “Frost at Midnight,” which reflects on his time in a formal
educational environment that he believes squelched his creative spirit.
Coleridge moves on from his introduction to his critical theory of language to a reflection on the
evolution of his philosophical doctrine. He states that he initially adhered to the associational
psychology of David Hartley, which holds that new ideas emerge from associations inherent in
combinations of older ideas. Coleridge criticizes and then rejects this belief, asserting that the
mind is not a mechanical receptacle for ideas that are already out in the world. Rather, the mind
is an active agent in the perception of reality. Because reality emerges out of a discourse with
Nature, Coleridge comes close to a Cartesian conclusion that reality is, in some sense,
constructed.
Coleridge then delivers remarks on how he defines imagination, which he restates as “emplastic
power.” Emplastic power is the means through which the human soul is able to perceive the
universe in its raw form, a spiritual unity. He distinguishes the universe’s spiritual unity as the
only ultimate “object” to be perceived, asserting that any other objects can be categorized as
“fancy,” or the products of the other associative functions of the human mind.
SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE’S BIOGRAPHIA LITERARIA: QUESTIONS WITH
ANSWERS
I. INTRODUCTION
1. Coleridge (1772-1834) coauthored with Wordsworth the famous Lyrical Ballads. A
distinguished poet and critic, his Biographia Literaria; or, Biographical Sketches of My Literary
Life and Opinions (1817) is one of the most significant treatises on the nature of poetry and the
poet.
2. “Coleridge clearly exemplifies the shift in critical focus in the early nineteenth century, from
the poem to the character of the poet, from the rules and the conventions of poetry to the activity
of poem-making,” Kaplan and Anderson write (258).
II. BIOGRAPHIA LITERARIA: CHAPTER XIV
1. In relating the origins of Lyrical Ballads, Coleridge in this chapter employs the MIMETIC
APPROACH since he delineates the two distinct subject matters and incidents which he and
Wordsworth were to imitate. Coleridge says that the power of poetry to be twofold: That is, it
can arouse reader sympathy by “faithful adherence to the truth of nature” (258) and by “giving
the interest of novelty by the modifying colors of imagination” (258).
Wordsworth was to assume the first task by rendering the familiar as marvelous and beautiful,
while Coleridge was to accept the second task of making the unfamiliar credible.
(1) Coleridge’s poems “should be directed to persons and characters supernatural or at
least romantic” but would be presented with such “a semblance of truth sufficient to procure for
these shadows of imagination that willing suspension of disbelief for the moment, which
constitutes poetic faith” (258).
(2) Wordsworth would take an opposing approach; his “subjects were to be chosen from
ordinary life,” but he would “give them “the charm of novelty” so that they would “excite a
feeling analogous to the supernatural” (258).
2. In this most memorable of all critical phrases—“to produce . . . the willing suspension of
disbelief [in the reader] for the moment which constitutes poetic faith”— Coleridge moves into
the AFFECTIVE domain. In essence, he contends that a reader picks up every literary work
knowing it is fiction (that is, disbelieving that it is reality), but the reader willingly suspends this
disbelief while reading in order to gain the pleasure which the literary work promises. This
suspension of disbelief is the “poetic faith” which every reader must accord an author, until the
author through the work violates this faith.
3. Coleridge then gives his definition of a poem:
(1) This definition first uses the AFFECTIVE THEORY: A poem seeks to produce
“immediate” “pleasure” in the reader, not to teach a “truth” (261). This assertion runs counter to
all of the critics we have read since Horace, including Wordsworth.
(2) The second part of the definition uses the OBJECTIVE THEORY: A poem has
“organic unity,” a conception, the editors states, which “harken [s] back to Aristotle” (257).
Organic unity means that all of the parts of a poem must fit together as the parts of an organism
fit together, where, if you remove one part, the organism dies.
4. “A poem is that species of composition, which is opposed to works of science by proposing
for its immediate object pleasure, not truth” [AFFECTIVE] (261). Such a “legitimate poem . . .
must be one, the parts of which mutually support and explain each other; all in their proportion
harmonizing with, and supporting the purpose and known influences of metrical arrangement”
[OBJECTIVE] (261).
5. To Coleridge, the essence of poetry is not found in the Objective or Affective approaches.
Rather it is found in what goes on in the mind of the poet—the EXPRESSIVE approach.
Thus, Coleridge states, “What is poetry? is so nearly the same question with, what is a poet? that
the answer to the one is involved in the solution to the other” (262).
To Coleridge the true poet is characterized by “poetic genius” (262), what he later calls “poetic
IMAGINATION” (262). Coleridge then describes what goes on in the poet’s mind when a poem
is being created.
Imagination, he says, “sustains and modifies the images, thoughts, and emotions of the poet’s
own mind” (262).
The “poet, described in ideal perfection, brings the whole soul of man into activity. . . . He
diffuses a tone and spirit of unity, that blends, and (as it were) fuses, each into each, by that
synthetic and magical power, to which we have exclusively appropriated the name of
imagination” (262).
“Imagination . . . reveals itself in the balance or reconciliation of opposite or discordant qualities:
of sameness, with difference; of the general, with the concrete; the idea, with the image; the
individual, with the representative; the sense of novelty and of freshness, with old and familiar
objects . . . and while it blends and harmonizes the natural and the artificial, still subordinates art
to nature . . .” (262).
Imagination is “the SOUL that is everywhere, and in each; and forms all into one graceful and
intelligent whole” (263)
III. CHAPTER XIII
1. In Chapter 13, Coleridge divides the Imagination into two parts: the Primary Imagination and
Secondary Imagination.
2. Most critics find this distinction less significant than the words he uses to suggest how poetic
Imagination works to create a poem’s organic unity. Coleridge writes that poetic imagination
“dissolves, diffuses, dissipates, in order to recreate; . . . it struggles to idealize and to unify. It is
essentially vital, even as all objects (as objects) [being imitated] are essentially fixed and dead”
(263).
3. The idea here is that everything is the world is “dead” (263), and only the poet’s Imagination
can bring aspects of the world alive, which is the meaning of the word which Coleridge uses,
“vital” (263).
4. The discussion of Fancy and Imagination is Coleridge’s attempt to distinguish and define
those “faculties” that are the source of all mental activity, including the creative.
5. He dismisses Fancy as the mere shuffling of sense data and memory by means of one’s talent;
such mechanical shuffling produces creatures not found in nature, such as unicorns.
6. Imagination he conceives of according to the Kantian distinction between the Verstand
(understanding of familiar perceptions and concepts) and Vernunft (direct apprehension of
universal truths).
7. The Verstand faculty is possessed by every human being, who intuitively realizes the oneness
of an object (automobile, house) or a concept (New York City, General Motors).
8. The Vernunft faculty is a superior intuitive power that conceives of the oneness of universals
(truth, God).
9. Corresponding to the Verstand is the Primary Imagination, and to the Vernunft, the Secondary
Imagination.
10. The Secondary Imagination is the creative gift possessed by poetic genius.
IV. CHAPTER XV
1. In this chapter, Coleridge through his examination of two of Shakespeare’s poems is seen as
the practical critic doing, what he terms, “practical criticism” (263)
2. However, in his comments on Shakespeare, Coleridge will further explain or reinforce some
of his main ideas about the poetic process.
Two stand out, both relating to the poet’s mind.
(1) Coleridge contends that poetic genius is basically inborn. A poet’s “imagination”
“may be cultivated and improved, but can never be learned. It is in these that “poeta nascitur non
fit [The poet is born not made]” (264). [EXPRESSIVE]
(2) The poet must be a philosopher: “No man was ever yet a great poet, without being at
the same time a profound philosopher” (267).
V. CHAPTER XVII
1. In this chapter Coleridge attacks Wordsworth’s idea that the “language” of poems should be
“taken, with due exceptions, from the mouths of men in real life” (269) [OBJECTIVE THEORY
about what type of language should be used in a poem].
2. Coleridge attacks Wordsworth’s assumption that “the shepherd-farmers in the vales of
Cumberland and Westmoreland” got their language from being close to nature. He said that they
probably picked it up from “religious EDUCATION, which has rendered few books familiar, but
the Bible and the liturgy or hymn book” (270).
3. Coleridge asserts that, unlike Wordsworth, he did not believe “every man” is likely to be
improved by a country life or by country labors” (271).
4. Coleridge then argues that a “rustic’s language” is typically so barren that it can “convey”
only “fewer and more indiscriminate” ideas than an educated person (275).
5. The “rustic, from the more imperfect development of is faculties, and from the lower state of
their cultivation, aims almost solely to convey insulated facts, either those of his scanty
experience or his traditional belief; while the education man chiefly seeks to discover and
express those connections of things . . . from which some more or less general [universal] law is
deducible” (275). Furthermore, “the distinct knowledge of an uneducated rustic would furnish a
very scanty vocabulary” (275).
6. Coleridge then questions whether, given the limitations of most uneducated rural people, their
“language . . . could be transferred to any species of poem, except the drama” (277); in drama,
Coleridge’s implication is, such colloquial language could be imitated in order to characterize a
rustic as comical.
Samuel Coleridge quiz Questions with Answers
1) When was Samuel Coleridge born?
d) 21 October 1772
2) What was Samuel Coleridge’s middle name?
b) Taylor
3) Which college did Samuel Coleridge attend?
c) Jesus College
4) Which poem was written by Samuel Coleridge after his sister Ann died in 1791?
a) Monody
5) What name was assumed by Samuel Coleridge when he joined the army?
d) Silas Tomkin Comberbache
6) Which periodical was published by Samuel Coleridge?
b) The Watchman
7) Which magazine was edited by Samuel Coleridge with Sara Hutchinson in 1809-1810?
a) The Friend
8) Which ballad by Samuel Coleridge has the following lines?
Water, water, every where,
And all the boards did shrink;
Water, water, every where,
Nor any drop to drink.
c) The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
9) Which bird was killed in The Rime of the Ancient Mariner?
d) Albatross
10) Where did Samuel Coleridge die?
b) Highgate
"The Function of Criticism at the Present Time" by Matthew Arnold
THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME” (1864)
Summary
Matthew Arnold’s essay, “The Function of Criticism at the Present Time,” was the prefatory
essay to his collection Essays in Criticism and presents an argument that criticism is more
important and powerful the was previously believed. Although he states that “the critical power
is of lower rank than the creative,” his essay also makes clear that criticism is a vital component
of allowing creativity to flourish within a society.
According to Arnold, criticism should be a “dissemination of ideas, an unprejudiced and
impartial effort to study and spread the best that is known and thought in the world.” His
definition of criticism therefore likens it to a sort of judgment in which the critic uses his (or her)
special knowledge and training to examine a piece of literary work with disinterestedness and
place a verdict on its merits and/or defects. This aspect of being disinterested or objective is vital
to Arnold’s work, who loathed religious and politically-inflected criticisms in art. Instead the
critic’s work should be to “see the object as in itself it really is” rather than ascribing the critic’s
own personal beliefs onto the literary work. Arnold was concerned that Victorian England had
fallen behind other countries in producing literature because of their failure of criticism. He
attributed this failure to the division of society into political and religious groups, of which
intellectuals and critics belonged, making them incapable of seeing art in its true state. Likewise,
this lack of true ideas hurt the creation of literature because, according to Arnold, the production
of a great piece of literary work requires two things: an individual endowed with great creativity
and a moment characterized by an atmosphere of great ideas. He provides Goethe as an example
of a literary artist who enjoyed both elements of artistic production.
Finally, Arnold believes that the work of criticism can have some similarities to creative work.
First, the critic may feel creative joy or excitement while writing a piece of criticism.
Additionally, it provides a public good in that the successful critic will help to elevate
worthwhile literary art.
Analysis : In "The Function of Criticism at the Present Time," Matthew Arnold argues it
is criticism that has most significantly influenced French and German literature, and that
criticism is applied using all "branches of knowledge, theology, philosophy, history, art, [and]
science," in order to see things as they truly are. He further argues that those who write and study
English literature fail to apply any criticism, and English literature is suffering in quality due
to the lack of criticism.
By criticism, Arnold means more than just critiquing though critiquing is certainly a part of
literary criticism. Literary criticism is an "evaluation, analysis, description, [and] interpretation
of literary works" ("Literary Criticism"). And, Arnold is arguing it is through such criticism that
new ideas are gained and literature is improved in order for literature to deal in deeper subject
matters.
He particularly notes that Victorian society is failing to improve literature through criticism,
and one of the reasons why is because the society is so divided by its members' own political
and religious ideals that the society is unable to see things as they truly are. He goes on to list
many various works of English literature that are written solely to promote the writers' own
political agendas; for example, the Edinburgh Review represents the agenda of the Whigs;
the Quarterly Review represents the agenda of the Tories; the British Quarterly
Review represents the vies of "political Dissenters; and the Times represents the views of the
"common, satisfied, well-to-do Englishman." In short, each faction of Victorian English
society has found a way to voice its own criticism, but the biased criticisms of factions alone
are meaningless and will not lead to truth. As Arnold argued, British Victorian society had no
interest in combining all of the criticisms from all factions into one common, "disinterested"
criticism, which is what would be needed for criticism to draw any true conclusions.
He further argues that true criticism can only be reached when one analyzes things from
a detached standpoint. But unfortunately, "The mass of mankind will never have any ardent
zeal for seeing things as they are; very inadequate ideas will always satisfy them."
The Function of Criticism at the Present Times by Matthew Arnold Summary
Introduction
The essay The Function of Criticism at the Present Time was published by Matthew Arnold in
his first collection of critical writing ‘Essays in Criticism’ in 1865. The essay deals with
Arnold’s interpretation of criticism and his critique of writers who write politically or religiously
biased literature thus narrowing its scope.
Idea vs. Reality
Arnold starts his essay by saying, “Of the literature of France and Germany, as of the intellect of
Europe in general, the main effort, for now, many years, has been a critical effort; the
Endeavour, in all branches of knowledge, theology, philosophy, history, art, science, to see the
object as in itself it really is.” and adds, “false and malicious criticism had better never been
made.”
Here Arnold explains the basic task of any critic. According to him, a critic must perceive any
object (work) as it is, without thinking about the other conditions. Thus for him, the text should
be the whole and a critic should never take the help of any other text for its explanation. In the
next line, he condemns the false criticism (which is not original and is biased). Arnold believes that the
creator of a text is greater than its critic because “creative activity is the true function of man”,
however, it is the critic who draws the true meaning of that particular work of literature.
According to Arnold, for a production of a great literary work, “the power of man” and “the
power of moment” i.e. climate of great ideas must concur. If anyone of them is absent then a
great work of literature will never be produced.
To explain this, Arnold takes the example of two poets- Goethe and Byron. Both Goethe and
Byron had great productive power yet the work of Goethe is more productive than that of Byron
because the former had a rich cultural background which the latter lacked. Similarly,
Shakespeare was not a deep reader. His fame and glory were only because his age had a climate
of great ideas.
Next, he says that the French Revolution, with its writers like Rousseau and Voltaire, was more
powerful than the English Revolution of Charles (of great ideas of Renaissance).
However the English Revolution is though practically less successful than the French Revolution
yet it is better than the letter as it “appeals to an order of ideas which are universal, certain
permanent”.
French Revolution quitted the intellectual sphere and rushed into the political sphere, thus losing
its universal application. French Revolution was followed by “Epoch of Concentration” (period
of single-mindedness) which could not live long and was followed by “Epoch of Expansion”
(period of creative ideas).
The works written on the French Revolution (like that of Burke) are though great and well appreciated
yet they are biased as they combine politics with thought.
Use of Disinterestedness
Having explained this Arnold moves towards the nature of critic, his thinking, and his work. According to
him, a critic must maintain a position of “disinterestedness,” i.e. keeping aloof from “the practical view
of things“ in order to “know the best that is known and thought in the world, and in its turn making
this known, to create a current of true and fresh ideas.” Here in these lines, he explains the task of a
critic in a 3-fold way:
1. First, a critic must know about life and the world before writing anything and see the things
as they are.
2. Second, he should promote his ideas to others and make the best ideas prevail in society.
3. Third, he must create an atmosphere for the creation of the genius of the future by
promoting these noble. honest and true ideas.
Arnold criticizes the literature produced during the Victorian age. According to him, there is a failure of
criticism due to the division of society and intellectuals into small political and religious groups that
makes them incapable of seeing things in their true states.
He cites the example of various works of literature which were written to promote works the writers’
own political agendas. e.g. the Edinburgh Review represents views of the Whigs; the Quarterly Review
re presents views of Tories; the British
Quarterly Review represents the views of political Dissenters, and the Times represents the views of the
“rich Englishman.”
On the other hand, he also criticises the “constructive” suggestions for living presented by Bishop
Colenso and Miss Cobbe.
For him, they have religious influence in their writings which is again against the spirit of true criticism.
He also tells that the common man lacks creativity.
Duty of Criticism
Arnold says that criticism must maintain its independence from the practical spirit and its aims. It must
express dissatisfaction even with well-meant efforts of the practical spirit if in the sphere of the ideal
they seem lacking.
It must be patient and not hurry on to the goal because of its practical
importance, know how to wait, and know how to attach itself as well as withdraw from things.
Conclusion
Arnold talks about a person who regrets the loss of zeal which once existed but is no longer present in
contemporary society due to the influence of politics and religion on ideas.
Thus he gives voice to commoners’ views to enhance the glory of the past. He advises the critics to
adopt disinterested behavior towards criticism. They should take into consideration foreign thought as
well.
Their judgments should be from their own mind without any biases and should communicate fresh
knowledge to their readers. The criticism is capable of making progress in Europe taking it towards
perfection.
In the end, he defends his views on criticism and says that he won’t change his opinion for any person
who deviates from his theory of criticism
Literary Criticism quiz
1. The New Critics were: Formalist critics
This approach to literature is now called "Formalism" because it is no longer as "new" as it once was.
Formalism moved away from the historical/biographical approach that had previously dominated
literary criticism, and focused on close reading of the text to consider it as a self-contained object.
2. What approach to literary criticism requires the critic to know about the author's life and times?
Historical
A formalist approach specifically excludes the life and times of the author, and looks only at the text. It is
not necessary (i.e. required) for a critic to know the author's background for a mimetic approach,
though it may prove helpful.
3. Formalist critics believe that the value of a work cannot be determined by the author's intention.
What term do they use when speaking of this belief?
The intentional fallacy
The affective fallacy is the belief that the meaning or value of a work may be determined by its effect on
the reader. The pathetic fallacy is attributing human emotions to non-human objects, such as nature.
4. What poet popularized the term objective correlative, which is often used in formalist criticism?
T.S.Eliot
The term refers to objects, situations, or events that instantly evoke a particular emotion. It was coined
by poet and painter Washington Allston and popularized by T.S. Eliot in his 1919 article "Hamlet and His
Problems".
5. In a Freudian approach to literature, concave images are usually seen as: Female symbols
Such images include ponds, cups, and caves. Objects that are longer than they are wide are often seen
as phallic symbols.
6. He was an influential force in archetypal criticism. Jung
Jung labeled three major archetypes: the shadow, or the darker, unconscious self (the villain); the
persona, or a man's social personality (the hero); and the anima, or a man's "soul image" (the heroine).
7. Seven is an archetype associated with: Perfection
To the Greeks, it was the perfect number, and the Hebrews used seven frequently in their religious
literature. God rested from creation on the seventh day, for instance.
8. This feminist critic proposed that all female characters in literature are in at least one of the following
stages of development: the feminine, feminist, or female stage.
Answer: Elaine Showalter
According to Showalter, the feminine stage involves "imitation of the prevailing modes of the
dominant tradition" and "internalization of its standards." The feminist stage involves "protest
against these standards and values and advocacy of minority rights." Finally, the female stage is
the "phase of self-discovery, a turning inwards freed from some of the dependency of opposition,
a search for identity."
9. A critic argues that in John Milton's "Samson Agonistes," the shearing of Samson's locks is symbolic of
his castration at the hands of Delilah. What kind of critical approach is this critic using?
Answer: Psychologicalapproach
More specifically, the approach is Freudian. Such a critic might also argue that the fighting words
Samson exchanges with Harapha constitute a reassertion of his manhood.
10. One archetype in literature is the scapegoat. Which of these literary characters serves that purpose?
Answer: BillyBudd
Billy Budd in Herman Melville's book of the same name is the classic scapegoat; he is executed in
order to prevent a mutiny.
11. One of the disadvantages of this school of criticism is that it tends to make readings too subjective.
Reader Response Criticism
Of these three, reader response is the most subjective form of criticism because it argues that
meaning lies entirely with the reader. Indeed, in this view, the text itself has no meaning of its
own apart from the reader's interpretation.
12. This literary critic coined the term "fancy."
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
Coleridge distinguished between fancy and imagination as follows: "The fancy brings together
images which have no connection natural or moral, but are yoked together by the poet by means
of some accidental coincidence." On the other hand, he said, "The imagination modifies images,
and gives unity to variety; it sees all things in one."
13. Michael Foucault was the major practitioner of this school of criticism.
Structuralism
Structuralists think of literature as a system of signs and they try to reveal the organizational
codes that they believe regulate all literature.
14. This critical approach assumes that language does not refer to any external reality. It can assert
several, contradictory interpretations of one text.
Deconstructionism
Deconstructionists base their interpretations on the political and/or social implications of
language and do not consider the author's intention. Jacques Derrida was the founder of this
approach.
15. A critic examining John Milton's "Paradise Lost" focuses on the physical description of the Garden of
Eden, on the symbols of hands, seed, and flower, and on the characters of Adam, Eve, Satan, and God.
He pays special attention to the epic similes and metaphors and the point of view from which the tale is
being told. He looks for meaning in the text itself, and does not refer to any biography of Milton. He is
most likely a ____ critic.
Formalist
Formalistic critics believe that the text alone is all that is necessary for an accurate interpretation.
They do not bring in outside information about the author's life. Because they are interested in
what the work itself has to say, formalistic critics (presumably) do not view works through the
lens of feminism, psychology, mythology, or any other such standpoint, and they are not
interested in the work's affect on the reader.
16. This literary critic warned: "We must remember that the greater part of our current reading matter
is written for us by people who have no real belief in a supernatural order . . . And the greater part . . . is
coming to be written by people who not only have no such belief, but are even ignorant of the fact that
there are still people in the world so 'backward' or so 'eccentric' as to continue to believe."
T.S. Eliot
T.S. Eliot made this point in his essay "Religion and Literature." But this, he argues, does not
mean a religious reader should simply ignore secular literature: "So long as we are conscious of
the gulf fixed between ourselves and the greater part of contemporary literature, we are more or
less protected from being harmed by it, and are in a position to extract from it what good it has
to offer us."
17. A critic of Thomas Otway's "Venice Preserv'd" wishes to know why the play's conspirators, despite
the horrible, bloody details of their obviously brutish plan, are portrayed in a sympathetic light. She
examines the author's life and times and discovers that there are obvious similarities between the
conspiracy in the play and the Popish Plot. She is most likely a _________ critic.
Answer: Historical
Historical critics try to find meaning in works by placing them in their biographical or cultural
context. For a complete analysis of Otway's play from a historical perspective, you can read my
paper at http://www.literatureclassics.com/ancientpaths/otway.html.
18. This poet might be described as a moral or philosophical critic for arguing that works must have
"high seriousness."
Matthew Arnold
This quote comes from Matthew Arnold. Plato similarly insisted that literature must exhibit
moralism and utilitarianism, and Horace believed literature should be "delightful and instructive."
19. A critic examining Pope's "An Essay on Man" asks herself: How well does this poem accord with the
real world? Is it accurate? Is it moral? She is most likely a _____ critic.
Mimetic
Mimetic critics also consider whether works show how people really act. The mimetic approach
resembles the moral/philosophical approach in many ways. Since Pope in his "Essay" is
attempting to vindicate the ways of God to man, a mimetic approach to the work may be the
most useful.
20. One of the potential disadvantages of this approach to literature is that it can reduce meaning to a
certain time frame, rather than making it universal throughout the ages.
Answer: Historical
Formalist critics argue that the historical / biographical approach tends to reduce art to the level
of biography and to make it relative to its own time period rather than universal. On the other
hand, it can be argued that one disadvantage of the formalist approach is that it fails to account
for external allusions. Because it does not take into account information such as the life of the
author, a formalist analysis of "Paradise Lost" could not explain the statement "what in me is
dark / Illumine" in terms of Milton's own physical blindness. Yet this fact adds another layer of
richness to the statement. There are advantages and disadvantages to every critical approach;
this is why it is good to be familiar with all of them and to combine them as needed.
Biographia Literaria, or Biographical Sketches of My Literary Life and Opinions, is an
autobiography in discourse by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, which he published in 1817, in two
volumes of twenty-three chapters.
Biographia Literaria includes some of the most important English writing on poetic theory. Some
of it is a response to ideas of poetry advanced by his close friend and collaborator William
Wordsworth, first in the 1800 preface to their joint publication Lyrical Ballads and then in the
preface to Wordsworth’s Collected Poems (1815). Referring to the latter, Coleridge says he
wants in Biographia Literaria to make clear ‘on what points I coincide with the opinions in that
preface, and in what points I altogether differ’.
In one of the most famous passages in Biographia Literaria, Coleridge offers a theory of
creativity (pp. 95-96). He divides imagination into primary and secondary.
Primary imagination is common to all humans: it enables us to perceive and make sense
of the world. It is a creative function and thereby repeats the divine act of creation.
The secondary imagination enables individuals to transcend the primary imagination –
not merely to perceive connections but to make them. It is the creative impulse that
enables poetry and other art.
Biographia Literaria contains the first instance of the phrase ‘suspension of disbelief’. Writing
about his contributions to the Lyrical Ballads, which includes The Rime of the Ancient Mariner,
Coleridge says that although his characters were ‘supernatural, or at least romantic’, he tried to
give them a ‘human interest and a semblance of disbelief’ that would prompt readers to the
‘willing suspension of disbelief … which constitutes poetic faith’.
The book addresses thematic elements of poetry such as suspense, as well as elements of the poet
himself, including a decomposition of the meaning of creativity informed by his knowledge
about both past and early 19th-century philosophical thought. Because of the insight it provides
into the mind of a great poet in the early years of what scholars define as the modern literary
era, Biographica Literaria is now a seminal work in critical theory.
Coleridge begins the work with a meditation on his formative years of schooling, particularly his
secondary schooling under James Boyer at a grammar school called Christ’s Hospital. This time
formed the basis for his poem “Frost at Midnight,” which reflects on his time in a formal
educational environment that he believes squelched his creative spirit.
Coleridge moves on from his introduction to his critical theory of language to a reflection on the
evolution of his philosophical doctrine. He states that he initially adhered to the associational
psychology of David Hartley, which holds that new ideas emerge from associations inherent in
combinations of older ideas. Coleridge criticizes and then rejects this belief, asserting that the
mind is not a mechanical receptacle for ideas that are already out in the world. Rather, the mind
is an active agent in the perception of reality. Because reality emerges out of a discourse with
Nature, Coleridge comes close to a Cartesian conclusion that reality is, in some sense,
constructed.
Coleridge then delivers remarks on how he defines imagination, which he restates as “emplastic
power.” Emplastic power is the means through which the human soul is able to perceive the
universe in its raw form, a spiritual unity. He distinguishes the universe’s spiritual unity as the
only ultimate “object” to be perceived, asserting that any other objects can be categorized as
“fancy,” or the products of the other associative functions of the human mind.
SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE’S BIOGRAPHIA LITERARIA: QUESTIONS WITH
ANSWERS
I. INTRODUCTION
1. Coleridge (1772-1834) coauthored with Wordsworth the famous Lyrical Ballads. A
distinguished poet and critic, his Biographia Literaria; or, Biographical Sketches of My Literary
Life and Opinions (1817) is one of the most significant treatises on the nature of poetry and the
poet.
2. “Coleridge clearly exemplifies the shift in critical focus in the early nineteenth century, from
the poem to the character of the poet, from the rules and the conventions of poetry to the activity
of poem-making,” Kaplan and Anderson write (258).
II. BIOGRAPHIA LITERARIA: CHAPTER XIV
1. In relating the origins of Lyrical Ballads, Coleridge in this chapter employs the MIMETIC
APPROACH since he delineates the two distinct subject matters and incidents which he and
Wordsworth were to imitate. Coleridge says that the power of poetry to be twofold: That is, it
can arouse reader sympathy by “faithful adherence to the truth of nature” (258) and by “giving
the interest of novelty by the modifying colors of imagination” (258).
Wordsworth was to assume the first task by rendering the familiar as marvelous and beautiful,
while Coleridge was to accept the second task of making the unfamiliar credible.
(1) Coleridge’s poems “should be directed to persons and characters supernatural or at
least romantic” but would be presented with such “a semblance of truth sufficient to procure for
these shadows of imagination that willing suspension of disbelief for the moment, which
constitutes poetic faith” (258).
(2) Wordsworth would take an opposing approach; his “subjects were to be chosen from
ordinary life,” but he would “give them “the charm of novelty” so that they would “excite a
feeling analogous to the supernatural” (258).
2. In this most memorable of all critical phrases—“to produce . . . the willing suspension of
disbelief [in the reader] for the moment which constitutes poetic faith”— Coleridge moves into
the AFFECTIVE domain. In essence, he contends that a reader picks up every literary work
knowing it is fiction (that is, disbelieving that it is reality), but the reader willingly suspends this
disbelief while reading in order to gain the pleasure which the literary work promises. This
suspension of disbelief is the “poetic faith” which every reader must accord an author, until the
author through the work violates this faith.
3. Coleridge then gives his definition of a poem:
(1) This definition first uses the AFFECTIVE THEORY: A poem seeks to produce
“immediate” “pleasure” in the reader, not to teach a “truth” (261). This assertion runs counter to
all of the critics we have read since Horace, including Wordsworth.
(2) The second part of the definition uses the OBJECTIVE THEORY: A poem has
“organic unity,” a conception, the editors states, which “harken [s] back to Aristotle” (257).
Organic unity means that all of the parts of a poem must fit together as the parts of an organism
fit together, where, if you remove one part, the organism dies.
4. “A poem is that species of composition, which is opposed to works of science by proposing
for its immediate object pleasure, not truth” [AFFECTIVE] (261). Such a “legitimate poem . . .
must be one, the parts of which mutually support and explain each other; all in their proportion
harmonizing with, and supporting the purpose and known influences of metrical arrangement”
[OBJECTIVE] (261).
5. To Coleridge, the essence of poetry is not found in the Objective or Affective approaches.
Rather it is found in what goes on in the mind of the poet—the EXPRESSIVE approach.
Thus, Coleridge states, “What is poetry? is so nearly the same question with, what is a poet? that
the answer to the one is involved in the solution to the other” (262).
To Coleridge the true poet is characterized by “poetic genius” (262), what he later calls “poetic
IMAGINATION” (262). Coleridge then describes what goes on in the poet’s mind when a poem
is being created.
Imagination, he says, “sustains and modifies the images, thoughts, and emotions of the poet’s
own mind” (262).
The “poet, described in ideal perfection, brings the whole soul of man into activity. . . . He
diffuses a tone and spirit of unity, that blends, and (as it were) fuses, each into each, by that
synthetic and magical power, to which we have exclusively appropriated the name of
imagination” (262).
“Imagination . . . reveals itself in the balance or reconciliation of opposite or discordant qualities:
of sameness, with difference; of the general, with the concrete; the idea, with the image; the
individual, with the representative; the sense of novelty and of freshness, with old and familiar
objects . . . and while it blends and harmonizes the natural and the artificial, still subordinates art
to nature . . .” (262).
Imagination is “the SOUL that is everywhere, and in each; and forms all into one graceful and
intelligent whole” (263)
III. CHAPTER XIII
1. In Chapter 13, Coleridge divides the Imagination into two parts: the Primary Imagination and
Secondary Imagination.
2. Most critics find this distinction less significant than the words he uses to suggest how poetic
Imagination works to create a poem’s organic unity. Coleridge writes that poetic imagination
“dissolves, diffuses, dissipates, in order to recreate; . . . it struggles to idealize and to unify. It is
essentially vital, even as all objects (as objects) [being imitated] are essentially fixed and dead”
(263).
3. The idea here is that everything is the world is “dead” (263), and only the poet’s Imagination
can bring aspects of the world alive, which is the meaning of the word which Coleridge uses,
“vital” (263).
4. The discussion of Fancy and Imagination is Coleridge’s attempt to distinguish and define
those “faculties” that are the source of all mental activity, including the creative.
5. He dismisses Fancy as the mere shuffling of sense data and memory by means of one’s talent;
such mechanical shuffling produces creatures not found in nature, such as unicorns.
6. Imagination he conceives of according to the Kantian distinction between the Verstand
(understanding of familiar perceptions and concepts) and Vernunft (direct apprehension of
universal truths).
7. The Verstand faculty is possessed by every human being, who intuitively realizes the oneness
of an object (automobile, house) or a concept (New York City, General Motors).
8. The Vernunft faculty is a superior intuitive power that conceives of the oneness of universals
(truth, God).
9. Corresponding to the Verstand is the Primary Imagination, and to the Vernunft, the Secondary
Imagination.
10. The Secondary Imagination is the creative gift possessed by poetic genius.
IV. CHAPTER XV
1. In this chapter, Coleridge through his examination of two of Shakespeare’s poems is seen as
the practical critic doing, what he terms, “practical criticism” (263)
2. However, in his comments on Shakespeare, Coleridge will further explain or reinforce some
of his main ideas about the poetic process.
Two stand out, both relating to the poet’s mind.
(1) Coleridge contends that poetic genius is basically inborn. A poet’s “imagination”
“may be cultivated and improved, but can never be learned. It is in these that “poeta nascitur non
fit [The poet is born not made]” (264). [EXPRESSIVE]
(2) The poet must be a philosopher: “No man was ever yet a great poet, without being at
the same time a profound philosopher” (267).
V. CHAPTER XVII
1. In this chapter Coleridge attacks Wordsworth’s idea that the “language” of poems should be
“taken, with due exceptions, from the mouths of men in real life” (269) [OBJECTIVE THEORY
about what type of language should be used in a poem].
2. Coleridge attacks Wordsworth’s assumption that “the shepherd-farmers in the vales of
Cumberland and Westmoreland” got their language from being close to nature. He said that they
probably picked it up from “religious EDUCATION, which has rendered few books familiar, but
the Bible and the liturgy or hymn book” (270).
3. Coleridge asserts that, unlike Wordsworth, he did not believe “every man” is likely to be
improved by a country life or by country labors” (271).
4. Coleridge then argues that a “rustic’s language” is typically so barren that it can “convey”
only “fewer and more indiscriminate” ideas than an educated person (275).
5. The “rustic, from the more imperfect development of is faculties, and from the lower state of
their cultivation, aims almost solely to convey insulated facts, either those of his scanty
experience or his traditional belief; while the education man chiefly seeks to discover and
express those connections of things . . . from which some more or less general [universal] law is
deducible” (275). Furthermore, “the distinct knowledge of an uneducated rustic would furnish a
very scanty vocabulary” (275).
6. Coleridge then questions whether, given the limitations of most uneducated rural people, their
“language . . . could be transferred to any species of poem, except the drama” (277); in drama,
Coleridge’s implication is, such colloquial language could be imitated in order to characterize a
rustic as comical.
Samuel Coleridge quiz Questions with Answers
1) When was Samuel Coleridge born?
d) 21 October 1772
2) What was Samuel Coleridge’s middle name?
b) Taylor
3) Which college did Samuel Coleridge attend?
c) Jesus College
4) Which poem was written by Samuel Coleridge after his sister Ann died in 1791?
a) Monody
5) What name was assumed by Samuel Coleridge when he joined the army?
d) Silas Tomkin Comberbache
6) Which periodical was published by Samuel Coleridge?
b) The Watchman
7) Which magazine was edited by Samuel Coleridge with Sara Hutchinson in 1809-1810?
a) The Friend
8) Which ballad by Samuel Coleridge has the following lines?
Water, water, every where,
And all the boards did shrink;
Water, water, every where,
Nor any drop to drink.
c) The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
9) Which bird was killed in The Rime of the Ancient Mariner?
d) Albatross
10) Where did Samuel Coleridge die?
b) Highgate
"The Function of Criticism at the Present Time" by Matthew Arnold
THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME” (1864)
Summary
Matthew Arnold’s essay, “The Function of Criticism at the Present Time,” was the prefatory
essay to his collection Essays in Criticism and presents an argument that criticism is more
important and powerful the was previously believed. Although he states that “the critical power
is of lower rank than the creative,” his essay also makes clear that criticism is a vital component
of allowing creativity to flourish within a society.
According to Arnold, criticism should be a “dissemination of ideas, an unprejudiced and
impartial effort to study and spread the best that is known and thought in the world.” His
definition of criticism therefore likens it to a sort of judgment in which the critic uses his (or her)
special knowledge and training to examine a piece of literary work with disinterestedness and
place a verdict on its merits and/or defects. This aspect of being disinterested or objective is vital
to Arnold’s work, who loathed religious and politically-inflected criticisms in art. Instead the
critic’s work should be to “see the object as in itself it really is” rather than ascribing the critic’s
own personal beliefs onto the literary work. Arnold was concerned that Victorian England had
fallen behind other countries in producing literature because of their failure of criticism. He
attributed this failure to the division of society into political and religious groups, of which
intellectuals and critics belonged, making them incapable of seeing art in its true state. Likewise,
this lack of true ideas hurt the creation of literature because, according to Arnold, the production
of a great piece of literary work requires two things: an individual endowed with great creativity
and a moment characterized by an atmosphere of great ideas. He provides Goethe as an example
of a literary artist who enjoyed both elements of artistic production.
Finally, Arnold believes that the work of criticism can have some similarities to creative work.
First, the critic may feel creative joy or excitement while writing a piece of criticism.
Additionally, it provides a public good in that the successful critic will help to elevate
worthwhile literary art.
Analysis : In "The Function of Criticism at the Present Time," Matthew Arnold argues it
is criticism that has most significantly influenced French and German literature, and that
criticism is applied using all "branches of knowledge, theology, philosophy, history, art, [and]
science," in order to see things as they truly are. He further argues that those who write and study
English literature fail to apply any criticism, and English literature is suffering in quality due
to the lack of criticism.
By criticism, Arnold means more than just critiquing though critiquing is certainly a part of
literary criticism. Literary criticism is an "evaluation, analysis, description, [and] interpretation
of literary works" ("Literary Criticism"). And, Arnold is arguing it is through such criticism that
new ideas are gained and literature is improved in order for literature to deal in deeper subject
matters.
He particularly notes that Victorian society is failing to improve literature through criticism,
and one of the reasons why is because the society is so divided by its members' own political
and religious ideals that the society is unable to see things as they truly are. He goes on to list
many various works of English literature that are written solely to promote the writers' own
political agendas; for example, the Edinburgh Review represents the agenda of the Whigs;
the Quarterly Review represents the agenda of the Tories; the British Quarterly
Review represents the vies of "political Dissenters; and the Times represents the views of the
"common, satisfied, well-to-do Englishman." In short, each faction of Victorian English
society has found a way to voice its own criticism, but the biased criticisms of factions alone
are meaningless and will not lead to truth. As Arnold argued, British Victorian society had no
interest in combining all of the criticisms from all factions into one common, "disinterested"
criticism, which is what would be needed for criticism to draw any true conclusions.
He further argues that true criticism can only be reached when one analyzes things from
a detached standpoint. But unfortunately, "The mass of mankind will never have any ardent
zeal for seeing things as they are; very inadequate ideas will always satisfy them."
The Function of Criticism at the Present Times by Matthew Arnold Summary
Introduction
The essay The Function of Criticism at the Present Time was published by Matthew Arnold in
his first collection of critical writing ‘Essays in Criticism’ in 1865. The essay deals with
Arnold’s interpretation of criticism and his critique of writers who write politically or religiously
biased literature thus narrowing its scope.
Idea vs. Reality
Arnold starts his essay by saying, “Of the literature of France and Germany, as of the intellect of
Europe in general, the main effort, for now, many years, has been a critical effort; the
Endeavour, in all branches of knowledge, theology, philosophy, history, art, science, to see the
object as in itself it really is.” and adds, “false and malicious criticism had better never been
made.”
Here Arnold explains the basic task of any critic. According to him, a critic must perceive any
object (work) as it is, without thinking about the other conditions. Thus for him, the text should
be the whole and a critic should never take the help of any other text for its explanation. In the
next line, he condemns the false criticism (which is not original and is biased). Arnold believes that the
creator of a text is greater than its critic because “creative activity is the true function of man”,
however, it is the critic who draws the true meaning of that particular work of literature.
According to Arnold, for a production of a great literary work, “the power of man” and “the
power of moment” i.e. climate of great ideas must concur. If anyone of them is absent then a
great work of literature will never be produced.
To explain this, Arnold takes the example of two poets- Goethe and Byron. Both Goethe and
Byron had great productive power yet the work of Goethe is more productive than that of Byron
because the former had a rich cultural background which the latter lacked. Similarly,
Shakespeare was not a deep reader. His fame and glory were only because his age had a climate
of great ideas.
Next, he says that the French Revolution, with its writers like Rousseau and Voltaire, was more
powerful than the English Revolution of Charles (of great ideas of Renaissance).
However the English Revolution is though practically less successful than the French Revolution
yet it is better than the letter as it “appeals to an order of ideas which are universal, certain
permanent”.
French Revolution quitted the intellectual sphere and rushed into the political sphere, thus losing
its universal application. French Revolution was followed by “Epoch of Concentration” (period
of single-mindedness) which could not live long and was followed by “Epoch of Expansion”
(period of creative ideas).
The works written on the French Revolution (like that of Burke) are though great and well appreciated
yet they are biased as they combine politics with thought.
Use of Disinterestedness
Having explained this Arnold moves towards the nature of critic, his thinking, and his work. According to
him, a critic must maintain a position of “disinterestedness,” i.e. keeping aloof from “the practical view
of things“ in order to “know the best that is known and thought in the world, and in its turn making
this known, to create a current of true and fresh ideas.” Here in these lines, he explains the task of a
critic in a 3-fold way:
1. First, a critic must know about life and the world before writing anything and see the things
as they are.
2. Second, he should promote his ideas to others and make the best ideas prevail in society.
3. Third, he must create an atmosphere for the creation of the genius of the future by
promoting these noble. honest and true ideas.
Arnold criticizes the literature produced during the Victorian age. According to him, there is a failure of
criticism due to the division of society and intellectuals into small political and religious groups that
makes them incapable of seeing things in their true states.
He cites the example of various works of literature which were written to promote works the writers’
own political agendas. e.g. the Edinburgh Review represents views of the Whigs; the Quarterly Review
re presents views of Tories; the British
Quarterly Review represents the views of political Dissenters, and the Times represents the views of the
“rich Englishman.”
On the other hand, he also criticises the “constructive” suggestions for living presented by Bishop
Colenso and Miss Cobbe.
For him, they have religious influence in their writings which is again against the spirit of true criticism.
He also tells that the common man lacks creativity.
Duty of Criticism
Arnold says that criticism must maintain its independence from the practical spirit and its aims. It must
express dissatisfaction even with well-meant efforts of the practical spirit if in the sphere of the ideal
they seem lacking.
It must be patient and not hurry on to the goal because of its practical
importance, know how to wait, and know how to attach itself as well as withdraw from things.
Conclusion
Arnold talks about a person who regrets the loss of zeal which once existed but is no longer present in
contemporary society due to the influence of politics and religion on ideas.
Thus he gives voice to commoners’ views to enhance the glory of the past. He advises the critics to
adopt disinterested behavior towards criticism. They should take into consideration foreign thought as
well.
Their judgments should be from their own mind without any biases and should communicate fresh
knowledge to their readers. The criticism is capable of making progress in Europe taking it towards
perfection.
In the end, he defends his views on criticism and says that he won’t change his opinion for any person
who deviates from his theory of criticism
Literary Criticism quiz
1. The New Critics were: Formalist critics
This approach to literature is now called "Formalism" because it is no longer as "new" as it once was.
Formalism moved away from the historical/biographical approach that had previously dominated
literary criticism, and focused on close reading of the text to consider it as a self-contained object.
2. What approach to literary criticism requires the critic to know about the author's life and times?
Historical
A formalist approach specifically excludes the life and times of the author, and looks only at the text. It is
not necessary (i.e. required) for a critic to know the author's background for a mimetic approach,
though it may prove helpful.
3. Formalist critics believe that the value of a work cannot be determined by the author's intention.
What term do they use when speaking of this belief?
The intentional fallacy
The affective fallacy is the belief that the meaning or value of a work may be determined by its effect on
the reader. The pathetic fallacy is attributing human emotions to non-human objects, such as nature.
4. What poet popularized the term objective correlative, which is often used in formalist criticism?
T.S.Eliot
The term refers to objects, situations, or events that instantly evoke a particular emotion. It was coined
by poet and painter Washington Allston and popularized by T.S. Eliot in his 1919 article "Hamlet and His
Problems".
5. In a Freudian approach to literature, concave images are usually seen as: Female symbols
Such images include ponds, cups, and caves. Objects that are longer than they are wide are often seen
as phallic symbols.
6. He was an influential force in archetypal criticism. Jung
Jung labeled three major archetypes: the shadow, or the darker, unconscious self (the villain); the
persona, or a man's social personality (the hero); and the anima, or a man's "soul image" (the heroine).
7. Seven is an archetype associated with: Perfection
To the Greeks, it was the perfect number, and the Hebrews used seven frequently in their religious
literature. God rested from creation on the seventh day, for instance.
8. This feminist critic proposed that all female characters in literature are in at least one of the following
stages of development: the feminine, feminist, or female stage.
Answer: Elaine Showalter
According to Showalter, the feminine stage involves "imitation of the prevailing modes of the
dominant tradition" and "internalization of its standards." The feminist stage involves "protest
against these standards and values and advocacy of minority rights." Finally, the female stage is
the "phase of self-discovery, a turning inwards freed from some of the dependency of opposition,
a search for identity."
9. A critic argues that in John Milton's "Samson Agonistes," the shearing of Samson's locks is symbolic of
his castration at the hands of Delilah. What kind of critical approach is this critic using?
Answer: Psychologicalapproach
More specifically, the approach is Freudian. Such a critic might also argue that the fighting words
Samson exchanges with Harapha constitute a reassertion of his manhood.
10. One archetype in literature is the scapegoat. Which of these literary characters serves that purpose?
Answer: BillyBudd
Billy Budd in Herman Melville's book of the same name is the classic scapegoat; he is executed in
order to prevent a mutiny.
11. One of the disadvantages of this school of criticism is that it tends to make readings too subjective.
Reader Response Criticism
Of these three, reader response is the most subjective form of criticism because it argues that
meaning lies entirely with the reader. Indeed, in this view, the text itself has no meaning of its
own apart from the reader's interpretation.
12. This literary critic coined the term "fancy."
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
Coleridge distinguished between fancy and imagination as follows: "The fancy brings together
images which have no connection natural or moral, but are yoked together by the poet by means
of some accidental coincidence." On the other hand, he said, "The imagination modifies images,
and gives unity to variety; it sees all things in one."
13. Michael Foucault was the major practitioner of this school of criticism.
Structuralism
Structuralists think of literature as a system of signs and they try to reveal the organizational
codes that they believe regulate all literature.
14. This critical approach assumes that language does not refer to any external reality. It can assert
several, contradictory interpretations of one text.
Deconstructionism
Deconstructionists base their interpretations on the political and/or social implications of
language and do not consider the author's intention. Jacques Derrida was the founder of this
approach.
15. A critic examining John Milton's "Paradise Lost" focuses on the physical description of the Garden of
Eden, on the symbols of hands, seed, and flower, and on the characters of Adam, Eve, Satan, and God.
He pays special attention to the epic similes and metaphors and the point of view from which the tale is
being told. He looks for meaning in the text itself, and does not refer to any biography of Milton. He is
most likely a ____ critic.
Formalist
Formalistic critics believe that the text alone is all that is necessary for an accurate interpretation.
They do not bring in outside information about the author's life. Because they are interested in
what the work itself has to say, formalistic critics (presumably) do not view works through the
lens of feminism, psychology, mythology, or any other such standpoint, and they are not
interested in the work's affect on the reader.
16. This literary critic warned: "We must remember that the greater part of our current reading matter
is written for us by people who have no real belief in a supernatural order . . . And the greater part . . . is
coming to be written by people who not only have no such belief, but are even ignorant of the fact that
there are still people in the world so 'backward' or so 'eccentric' as to continue to believe."
T.S. Eliot
T.S. Eliot made this point in his essay "Religion and Literature." But this, he argues, does not
mean a religious reader should simply ignore secular literature: "So long as we are conscious of
the gulf fixed between ourselves and the greater part of contemporary literature, we are more or
less protected from being harmed by it, and are in a position to extract from it what good it has
to offer us."
17. A critic of Thomas Otway's "Venice Preserv'd" wishes to know why the play's conspirators, despite
the horrible, bloody details of their obviously brutish plan, are portrayed in a sympathetic light. She
examines the author's life and times and discovers that there are obvious similarities between the
conspiracy in the play and the Popish Plot. She is most likely a _________ critic.
Answer: Historical
Historical critics try to find meaning in works by placing them in their biographical or cultural
context. For a complete analysis of Otway's play from a historical perspective, you can read my
paper at http://www.literatureclassics.com/ancientpaths/otway.html.
18. This poet might be described as a moral or philosophical critic for arguing that works must have
"high seriousness."
Matthew Arnold
This quote comes from Matthew Arnold. Plato similarly insisted that literature must exhibit
moralism and utilitarianism, and Horace believed literature should be "delightful and instructive."
19. A critic examining Pope's "An Essay on Man" asks herself: How well does this poem accord with the
real world? Is it accurate? Is it moral? She is most likely a _____ critic.
Mimetic
Mimetic critics also consider whether works show how people really act. The mimetic approach
resembles the moral/philosophical approach in many ways. Since Pope in his "Essay" is
attempting to vindicate the ways of God to man, a mimetic approach to the work may be the
most useful.
20. One of the potential disadvantages of this approach to literature is that it can reduce meaning to a
certain time frame, rather than making it universal throughout the ages.
Answer: Historical
Formalist critics argue that the historical / biographical approach tends to reduce art to the level
of biography and to make it relative to its own time period rather than universal. On the other
hand, it can be argued that one disadvantage of the formalist approach is that it fails to account
for external allusions. Because it does not take into account information such as the life of the
author, a formalist analysis of "Paradise Lost" could not explain the statement "what in me is
dark / Illumine" in terms of Milton's own physical blindness. Yet this fact adds another layer of
richness to the statement. There are advantages and disadvantages to every critical approach;
this is why it is good to be familiar with all of them and to combine them as needed.
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